Study

Microorganism(s)

Dairy Matrix

Peak Removal (%)

Proposed Mechanism

Key Methodological Limitation

Barukčić et al.

LAB starter cultures

Fermented milk

13–31

Adsorption

Low efficacy; toxin dissociation observed during refrigerated storage

Rezasoltani et al.

S. boulardii, L. casei

Reconstituted milk

75–88

Binding

Efficacy inversely correlated with initial AFM1 concentration

Kuharić et al.

Native LAB

Raw milk

>50

Binding/physical

Required centrifugation and filtration; industrially cost-prohibitive

Sanaldi & Coban

Probiotics

Various milk types

40–70

Adsorption

High variability with milk fat content; mechanism undetermined

Salem-Bekhit et al.

L. rhamnosus, S. cerevisiae

Milk

>90

Adsorption

Efficacy contingent on Box–Behnken process optimization

Jebelli Javan et al.

Cottage cheese LAB isolates

Milk

35–65

Binding

Strain-specific; binding destabilized under high-acidity conditions

Sarlak et al.

Probiotics

Doogh

50–65

Adsorption

Significant alterations to sensory and fermentation profiles

Martínez et al.

Mixed bacteria and yeasts

Milk

80–100

Degradation (claimed)

One of four degradation-claiming studies; metabolites not structurally identified by MS/MS

Anvar et al.

S. boulardii + LAB

Milk

60–80

Biophysical

Multi-step biophysical process; scalability undemonstrated

Abdelmotilib et al.

Probiotic cocktails

Milk

>90

Adsorption

Non-specific binding of milk macronutrients documented

Gonçalves et al.

Non-viable LAB

Frescal cheese

40–60

Adsorption

Efficacy dependent on high biomass concentrations (>10⁹ CFU/mL)

Panwar et al.

Indian Lactobacilli

Simulated GI model

30–55

Binding

Significant toxin desorption during simulated gastric phase

Ismail et al.

High-concentration microbes

Milk

45–95

Binding

Requires excessive microbial loads (>10⁹ CFU/mL) for peak efficacy

Adácsi et al.

Cell fractions

Milk

30–50

Surface binding

Fractionated cells showed lower efficacy versus intact cells

Güner et al.

Inactivated LAB

Milk

60–85

Adsorption

Heat-inactivation compromised binding site structural integrity

Riad et al.

Synbiotic + ZnO nanoparticles

Milk

>95

Complexation

Potential cytotoxicity of ZnO nanoparticle residues not assessed

Hamad et al.

Nanoencapsulation cocktail

Milk

85–98

Adsorption

High technical complexity; residual toxin risk unquantified

Hashemi & Amiri

L. reuteri

Sarshir

70–90

Adsorption

Confirmed high desorption rates under acidic and ionic conditions

Nahle et al.

LAB biofilms

Milk

60–80

Bio-sequestration

Industrial biofilm maintenance not feasible at scale

Kamyar & Movassaghghazani

Kefir starter culture

Milk

40–55

Adsorption

Fermentation time constraints limit practical applicability

Adriansyah et al.

Kefir microbiota

Milk

30–60

Binding

High inter-grain variability; standardization unaddressed

Jiménez-Pérez et al.

Kefir-derived polysaccharides

Milk

40–55

Adsorption

Low binding capacity compared to living biomass

Møller et al.

Multiple LAB strains

In vitro (milk)

20–80

Multi-toxin binding

Non-specific; co-sequestration of fat-soluble vitamins documented

Rabie et al.

Probiotics

Dairy products

45–70

Binding

Post-storage toxin recovery confirmed in multiple product formats

Fakhrabadipour et al.

B. bifidum

Skim milk

55–80

Adsorption

Efficacy markedly reduced in full-fat matrix

Almutairi et al.

L. lactis + inulin

Milk

65–85

Adsorption

Prebiotic–toxin interactions complicate safety interpretation

Assaf et al.

L. rhamnosus biofilm

Milk

80–100

Adsorption

High removal rate, but biofilm sloughing risk identified

Gonçalves et al.

Mixed methods

Cheese

40–60

Binding

Incomplete removal in complex solid matrix

Faghihi et al.

Probiotics vs. natamycin

Milk

50–75

Adsorption

Microbial binding less stable than chemical natamycin benchmark

Fagbemi

L. brevis

Raw milk

35–55

Binding

Low efficacy against raw milk contaminants; mechanism uncharacterized

Shahrestani et al.

Probiotics

Milk

50–70

Adsorption

pH fluctuations triggered measurable toxin release

Yüksel & Albayrak

L. plantarum NRRL B4496

Milk

40–65

Adsorption

Reversibility confirmed by wash-step desorption experiments

Sevim et al.

Novel biological agents

Milk

70–95

Adsorption

AFM1 bioaccessibility remained elevated following treatment

Chaudhary & Patel

W. confusa, L. plantarum

Milk/aqueous

60–90

Adsorption

High efficacy but mechanism confirmed as purely surface-based